This new article was originally published by CAIS [ CLICK HERE ].

 

Recent reports in Western media have raised alarming concerns about the fate of the Arch of Khosrow, the only remain of the Sasanian imperial Palace, an ancient Iranian structure of immense historical significance, following allegations that it has been used as a military shelter by Saddam Hussein’s regime. According to Brigadier General Mike Hannan, spokesperson for the Australian Army, which participated in the coalition forces during the military invasion of Iraq, 'The Iraqis have concealed their military vehicles behind the vaulted arch of Khosrow, and in the event of an assault, the remaining structure of the vault will collapse.' This statement underscores the precarious state of the site, which has already suffered from years of neglect and environmental degradation.

 

Prior to the U.S.-led invasion of Iraq on 20 March 2003, the Iraqi Ministry of Culture had issued warnings about the deteriorating condition of the vaulted Arch of the Khosrow. The Ministry emphasised that 'unless urgent conservation efforts are undertaken, this notable structure, which holds an esteemed place in ancient history and has served as an inspiration for Islamic architecture, will be lost forever.'

 

The ‘Arch of Khosrow’ (also known as Ayvān-e Kesrā, the Arch of Ctesiphon, Tāq-e Kasrā, and Ayvān-e Madāen) is one of the most iconic remnants of the Sasanian Empire and represents a pinnacle of ancient Iranian architectural achievement. Its towering vault, the largest unsupported brick arch in the world, has long been a symbol of Iran’s rich cultural heritage and a testament to the ingenuity of ancient engineering.

 

Under the terms of the 1954 Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict, member states of the United Nations are prohibited from targeting historically notable sites that hold a crucial place in human history. Furthermore, signatory states are obligated to protect such heritage from damage or destruction. Both the United States and its allies, as well as Iraq, are signatories to this convention, thereby committing to its principles and implementation. The convention also explicitly prohibits the military use of cultural sites, making any such utilisation a violation of international law.

 

In this context, Saddam Hussein’s regime stands accused of violating the Hague Convention by repurposing the Arch of the Khosrow for military purposes. However, the United States government is also implicated in contravening this legal framework. Historically, the United States has demonstrated a troubling disregard for the preservation of cultural heritage sites worldwide. This attitude has been likened to the Persian proverb of 'a raging bull let loose in a china shop,' illustrating the destructive consequences of its actions. Critics argue that this disregard may stem from a lack of historical awareness among the American populace, a phenomenon attributed to the nation’s relatively short history, barely 250 years, and its origins in the invasion, plunder, and massacre of indigenous peoples.

 

A pertinent example of this pattern can be found in the First Persian Gulf War (1990–1991), during which U.S. forces targeted a site adjacent to the Palace of Ctesiphon, despite being warned of its historical significance. The presence of a blue cross emblem on the roof of the nearby Palace Museum (also referred to as the Al-Qādisiyyah Museum), a universally recognised symbol for the protection of cultural property, was ignored. The attack reportedly targeted an Iraqi ammunition depot, but the resulting explosions caused notable structural damage to the Khosrow Palace, including the formation of new cracks in its already fragile vaulted arch.

 

Preliminary research indicates that the most severe fissure resulting from this attack is located at the front section of the vaulted arch, behind the main wall. Experts warn that even a minor tremor could lead to the collapse of both the vault and the wall, necessitating immediate conservation and restoration efforts. However, with the onset of the new U.S.-led war in Iraq and the occupation of the country under the pretext of promoting democracy and freedom, the prospects for such efforts appear bleak. The shadow of death and destruction now looms over Iraq, as well as over the Khosrow Palace, like a vulture circling its prey.

 

Iraqi archaeologists and cultural heritage experts express little hope for the preservation of the Arche of Ctesiphon Palace in the near future. The country’s diverse ethnic, linguistic, and religious composition, already strained by decades of conflict, could be further inflamed by the war, potentially leading to the disintegration of the Iraqi state. This outcome aligns with a broader geopolitical strategy that the United States and its allies have pursued in the region, encompassing Afghanistan, Iraq, Syria, and Iran. The occupation of Afghanistan and Iraq represents a continuation of this strategy, which was first articulated by the British Jewish scholar and proponent of global Zionism, Dr. Bernard Lewis, in the early 1970s. Lewis’s plan, which envisioned the fragmentation of the Middle East into smaller, more manageable entities, was set into motion in 1978 with the collapse of the Imperial Government in Iran and the subsequent establishment of an authoritarian Islamic regime. The U.S., U.K., France, and Germany played pivotal roles in this process, which has been systematically pursued to the present day.[1]

 

 

The Palace of Ctesiphon: A Brief History

The city of Ctesiphon (Ṭīsfūn), known for its iconic palace arch, is one of the most noteworthy architectural achievements of the ancient world. Located approximately 35 kilometres southeast of modern-day Baghdad, in present-day Iraq, Ctesiphon was a conglomeration of small cities. Among these, Asbānbar (New Ctesiphon) hosted the imperial palace, of which only a part of the arch and its enormous audience hall still stand today. This site was the crown jewel of the Sasanian Empire (224–651 CE), serving as a symbol of Persian imperial power and architectural ingenuity. It functioned as the imperial winter residence, the political and administrative centre of the empire, and came to be known as the ‘del-e Ērānšahr’ (the Heart of the Land of Aryans/Iranians).

 

The palace, was constructed during the reign of the King of Kings Khosrow I, Anōšīravān (r. 531–79 CE), one of the most celebrated Sasanian kings, although some scholars suggest that earlier foundations may date back to the reign of Shāpur I (r. 240–270 CE). The most striking feature of the palace is the Arch of Khosrow, a massive vaulted arch that stands at 35 metres tall and spans 25.50 metres wide, making it the largest unsupported brick arch in the world. The arch was part of the palace's grand ayvān (also iwān, a rectangular hall with one open side), 43.50m deep by 25.50 wide, pertaining a blind façade that stretches 46m in each direction from central line of the ayvān, served as a throne room and ceremonial space.

 

The palace complex was built using baked bricks and gypsum mortar, with intricate stucco decorations depicting continuous friezes of hunting scenes and large busts of kings. The floors and walls of the palace were adorned with marble, opus sectile, mosaics, and stucco sculptures. Its design reflects Persian architectural traditions, including elements such as the ayvān, which is one of the main features of Iranian architecture developed by the Parthians, and the use of monumental scale to convey imperial authority. The palace was not only a political centre but also a cultural and artistic hub, showcasing the Sasanian Empire's wealth and sophistication.

 

Ctesiphon served as the capital of the Sasanian Empire and was a thriving metropolis along the banks of the Tigris River. The city's strategic location made it a crossroads of trade and culture, connecting the Persian Empire with the Byzantine Empire and the Khorasan Trade Road (known in the West as the ‘Silk Road’). The palace, as the seat of Sasanian power, witnessed numerous historical events, including diplomatic negotiations, royal ceremonies, and military campaigns.

 

The Arch of Khosrow itself became a symbol of Persian architectural innovation. Its influence not only persisted in Persian architecture after the fall of the Sasanian Empire but also shaped the development of non-Iranian Islamic architecture. Its parabolic arch and monumental scale inspired later structures, such as the Great Mosque of Samarra and other early Islamic buildings in Jordan and Syria.

 

 

The Fall of Ctesiphon

The decline of the Palace of Ctesiphon began with the fall of the Sasanian Empire in 651 CE, following the Arab-Muslim conquest of Persia. The capital city of Ctesiphon (known in Arabic as al-Mada'in) was one of the primary targets of the Arab-Muslim forces. In 637 CE, after a decisive victory at the Battle of al-Qadisiyyah, the Arab army, led by Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas, advanced on Ctesiphon. The city, which had served as the political, cultural, and economic heart of the Sasanian Empire, was captured after a brief siege.

 

The fall of Ctesiphon was a catastrophic blow to the Sasanian Empire. The city was not only a symbol of imperial power but also a repository of immense wealth and cultural treasures. The Arab invaders, eager to claim the spoils of their victory, after slaughtering men and enslaving women and children, who were later sold in slave markets in Medina, looted the city on a massive scale, including the main palace. Among the most notable items taken were the imperial crown of the Sasanian kings, along with other treasures, including the legendary Bahārestān Carpet.

 

The imperial crown of the Sasanian King of Kings, a symbol of the empire's sovereignty and divine right to rule, was among the most prized treasures seized by the Arab invaders. It was so heavy that no human could bear its weight, so it was hung from the ceiling using chains directly above the imperial throne. According to historical accounts, the crown was taken as war booty and sent to Mecca, where it was reportedly kept inside the Ka'ba, the holiest site in Islam. This act was deeply symbolic, as it signified the triumph of Islam over the Zoroastrian Sasanian Empire and the transfer of power from the Persian Empire to the emerging Islamic caliphate.

 

The crown's placement in the Ka'ba also served as a reminder of the Arab-Muslim conquests and the wealth they had acquired. However, the crown's ultimate fate remains unclear. Some accounts suggest that it was later melted down or dismantled, while others claim that it remained in the Ka'ba for a time before being lost to history. However, it is entirely possible that it was melted down before the siege of Mecca by Abdallah ibn al-Zubayr on 31 October 683, during which the Ka'ba was burnt down, and the Black Stone was shattered, by a projectile from a catapult.[2]

 

As for the Bahārestān Carpet (also known as the ‘Spring of Khosrow’ or the ‘Garden Carpet’), this enormous carpet, measuring approximately 30 metres by 30 metres, was one of the most famous artefacts of the Sasanian Empire. Woven with gold, silver, and precious stones, the carpet depicted a lush garden, complete with flowers, trees, and flowing streams. It was said to have been commissioned by Khosrow I (r. 531–579 CE) and served as a symbol of the empire's wealth and artistic sophistication.

 

When the Arab forces captured Ctesiphon, they discovered the Bahārestān Carpet in the palace. The invaders tore the carpet into pieces and divided it among themselves as spoils of war. According to the 9th-century historian al-Tabari, the carpet was cut into 60,000 pieces, and each looter received a portion, with some pieces reportedly sold for 12,000 dirhams. Among those who received a share was Ali ibn Abi Talib, who later sold his portion of the booty to a Byzantine merchant. The destruction of the Bahārestān Carpet was not only the loss of a priceless artefact but also a symbolic act of cultural erasure, as the invaders dismantled one of the most iconic symbols of Sasanian grandeur.

 

The fall of Ctesiphon and the looting of its treasures marked the beginning of the end for the Sasanian Empire. The last Sasanian King of Kings, Yazdegerd III, fled eastward but was eventually assassinated in 651 CE, bringing the empire to a definitive close. The Arab-Muslim conquests ushered in a new era of Islamic rule in Persia, transforming the region's political, cultural, and religious landscape. Additionally, what is today known as Iraq (meaning Lower Iran) was a Persian domain and stronghold. With the migration of Arabs to the area, Persians were pushed back eastwards toward the Zagros Mountains and the Iranian central plateau. Although many newcomers mixed with the indigenous population, modern Iraqis are a hybrid of Persian and Semitic races.

 

However, while the Arab invaders destroyed or dispersed many of the Sasanian Empire's cultural treasures, they also preserved and adapted elements of Persian culture, which would later influence the development of Islamic art, architecture, and governance. The legacy of the Sasanian Empire, however, was irrevocably altered by the conquest, and the loss of treasures such as the imperial crown, the Bahārestān Carpet, and the burning of the Imperial Library remains a poignant reminder of the empire's fall.

 

Eventually, the city of Ctesiphon was largely abandoned, and its palaces, including the palace of which only the audience hall and half of its arch remain standing, fell into disrepair. Most of their bricks were either removed for reuse as building material or degraded by natural processes, such as erosion, earthquakes, and flooding, caused notable structural damage, particularly during the 1888 flood, when one-third of the standing ruins, including the north wing and the arch’s façade, were destroyed. In World War I, the site faced additional threats from both Ottoman and British forces, who used it as shelter. Following the Ottoman defeat, the British used the remains of the palace as a shooting target.

 

 

Conclusion

The enduring remnants of Ctesiphon’s palace complex, most notably the fractured audience hall and its iconic arch, stand as both a testament to ancient Persia’s architectural ingenuity and a sombre allegory for the fragility of cultural heritage. While these structures once epitomised the political and artistic zenith of the Sasanian Empire, their progressive deterioration, accelerated by cyclical natural disasters and human exploitation, mirrors the broader narrative of historical erasure that has plagued Mesopotamia. The 1888 flood, which obliterated a third of the surviving ruins, and the targeted reuse of its materials in later centuries, exemplify the dual vulnerabilities of such sites: their susceptibility to environmental forces and their commodification in service of transient human needs.

 

Equally notable are the anthropogenic threats born of modern geopolitics. From its repurposing as military target practice during the First World War to the destabilising impacts of contemporary regional conflicts, the palace’s fate underscores how cultural monuments become collateral casualties in struggles for power. Yet, even in its fragmented state, the site retains an undeniable potency. Its arch, though stripped of its original ornamentation, continues to dominate the landscape as a spectral echo of pre-Islamic Persia, challenging observers to reconcile its diminished physical form with the grandeur it once symbolised.

 

To lose such a monument entirely would represent more than the destruction of stone and mortar; it would sever a tangible connection to a civilisation that shaped the artistic, administrative, and ideological contours of the Near East. Moreover, its potential erasure would epitomise a failure of collective stewardship, a stark reminder that heritage preservation is not merely an academic endeavour but a moral imperative. In safeguarding these fragile links to the past, we preserve not only memory but also the possibility of a more informed, reflective future.[3]

 

 

Footnotes:

1. Burdman, M. (1980). “The Region Balkanization Plan Gains Momentum”, Executive Intelligence Review (EIR), Vol. 7, No. 35, 9 September, p. 39.

 

2. Contrary to the claim held by Muslims that the cuboid structure known as the Ka’aba, which stands today, was built by Ibrahim, historical evidence suggests it has undergone multiple reconstructions since the 7th century CE. Over the centuries, the Ka’aba has been repeatedly damaged by fire, destroyed, and razed to the ground. The current structure was built by the Ottomans in 1627, following the collapse of its walls caused by severe rainfall and flooding in 1626. Originally, the Ka’aba was constructed by the Quraish tribe to house their idols, including those of Lat, Manat, and Allah. Allah however survived and found its way to become the God in Islam after its creation in the 7th century.

 

3. The palace’s south wing first underwent rescue and restoration work in 1972, which included the construction of a large sloping buttress at the corner of the façade to reinforce the structure and counteract lateral forces that could precipitate collapse. This was followed by the reconstruction of the collapsed north wing in 1975, designed as a mirrored replica of the south wing.

 

 

Sources:

- Huff, D. (1993). 'Architecture of the Sasanian Period.' In Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. 2, pp. 329–334.

- Reade, J. (1999). 'The Palace of Ctesiphon: A Sasanian Architectural Marvel.' Iran, Vol. 37, pp. 67–77.

- Keall, E. J. (1982). 'The Sasanian Palace at Ctesiphon: A Study in Architectural Adaptation.' Mesopotamia, Vol. 17, pp. 1–18.

- al-Tabari, The History of al-Tabari, particularly Vol. 12: “The Battle of al-Qadisiyyah and the Conquest of Syria and Palestine.”

- Morony, M. G. (1984). Iraq After the Muslim Conquest. Princeton University Press.